Chapter 1: Solid State
- Distinguish between crystalline and amorphous solids.
- Derive the packing efficiency for:
- Simple cubic
- Body-centered cubic (BCC)
- Face-centered cubic (FCC) lattices
- Explain the following crystal defects with diagrams:
- Schottky defect
- Frenkel defect
- Describe the band theory of solids and its significance in explaining the electrical properties of conductors, semiconductors, and insulators.
- Calculate the number of atoms per unit cell in different cubic lattices.
Chapter 2: Solutions
- State and explain Raoult's Law for ideal solutions.
- Define and discuss colligative properties. Explain the elevation of boiling point and depression of freezing point with formulas.
- Calculate molar mass using osmotic pressure measurements.
- Differentiate between ideal and non-ideal solutions with examples.
- Explain Henry's Law and its applications.
Chapter 3: Ionic Equilibria
- Define pH and pOH. Derive the relationship between them in aqueous solutions.
- Explain the concept of buffer solutions and derive the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation for acidic and basic buffers.
- Discuss the common ion effect with an example.
- Calculate the pH of a weak acid or weak base solution given the concentration and dissociation constant.
- Explain the solubility product constant (Ksp) and its application in predicting the solubility of sparingly soluble salts.
Chapter 4: Chemical Thermodynamics
- State the first law of thermodynamics and explain the concepts of internal energy and enthalpy.
- Define entropy and Gibbs free energy. Derive the Gibbs free energy equation and discuss its significance in spontaneity of reactions.
- Calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction using Hess's Law.
- Explain the relationship between Gibbs free energy and equilibrium constant.
- Discuss the concept of enthalpy of formation and enthalpy of combustion with examples.
Chapter 5: Electrochemistry
- Define standard electrode potential and explain its significance.
- Derive the Nernst equation and apply it to calculate cell potential under non-standard conditions.
- Explain the construction and working of a standard hydrogen electrode.
- Discuss the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride and aqueous sodium chloride solutions.
- Calculate the equilibrium constant of a reaction from its standard electrode potential.
Chapter 6: Chemical Kinetics
- Define the rate of a chemical reaction and differentiate between average rate and instantaneous rate.
- Derive the integrated rate law for a first-order reaction.
- Explain the effect of temperature on reaction rate and derive the Arrhenius equation.
- Discuss the concept of activation energy with the help of an energy profile diagram.
- Calculate the half-life period for first-order and second-order reactions.
Chapter 7: Elements of Groups 16, 17, and 18
- Discuss the anomalous behavior of oxygen in Group 16 elements.
- Explain the preparation, properties, and uses of dioxygen and ozone.
- Describe the trends in physical and chemical properties of Group 17 elements (halogens).
- Explain the structure and bonding in interhalogen compounds.
- Discuss the isolation and properties of noble gases (Group 18) and their compounds.
Chapter 8: Transition and Inner Transition Elements
- Explain the general characteristics of transition elements with respect to variable oxidation states and catalytic properties.
- Discuss the preparation and properties of potassium dichromate and potassium permanganate.
- Describe the lanthanoid contraction and its consequences.
- Explain the electronic configuration and oxidation states of actinoids.
- Compare the properties of lanthanoids and actinoids.
Chapter 9: Coordination Compounds
- Define coordination compounds and explain the terms: ligand, coordination number, and coordination sphere.
- Write the IUPAC nomenclature for coordination compounds.
- Discuss Werner's theory of coordination compounds.
- Explain isomerism in coordination compounds, focusing on geometrical and optical isomerism.
- Describe the applications of coordination compounds in biological systems and industry.
Chapter 10: Halogen Derivatives
- Classify halogen derivatives of alkanes and arenes.
- Explain the mechanism of nucleophilic substitution reactions (SN1 and SN2) in alkyl halides.
- Discuss the preparation and properties of chloroform and iodoform.
- Explain the environmental effects of polyhalogen compounds like DDT and freons.
- Describe the methods of preparation and reactions of aryl halides.
Chapter 11: Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers
- Classify alcohols and phenols based on their structure.
- Discuss the industrial preparation of ethanol and phenol.
- Explain the acidic nature of phenols and compare it with alcohols.
- Describe the Williamson synthesis for the preparation of ethers.
- Explain the reactions of alcohols with hydrogen halides.
Chapter 12: Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
- Describe the preparation of aldehydes and ketones from alcohols and hydrocarbons.
- Explain nucleophilic addition reactions of aldehydes and ketones with examples.
- Discuss the acidity of carboxylic acids and the effect of substituents on their acidity.
- Explain the HVZ (Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky) reaction in carboxylic acids.
- Compare the reactivity of aldehydes and ketones towards nucleophiles.
Chapter 13: Amines
- Classify amines and explain their structure.
- Discuss the basicity of amines and compare the basicity of aliphatic and aromatic amines.
- Explain the preparation of amines by reduction of nitro compounds and nitriles.
- Describe the Hofmann bromamide degradation reaction.
- Discuss the reactions of amines with nitrous acid.
Chapter 14: Biomolecules
- Classify carbohydrates and explain the structure of glucose and fructose.
- Discuss the primary, secondary, and tertiary structures of proteins.
- Explain the mechanism of enzyme action.
- **Describe the structure
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Chapter 15: Introduction to Polymer Chemistry
1. Define the following terms:
Polymer: A large molecule composed of repeating structural units (monomers) connected by covalent chemical bonds.
Monomer: A small molecule that can combine with other similar or different molecules to form a polymer.
Copolymer: A polymer derived from two (or more) different monomer species.
2. Classify polymers based on their origin and provide examples.
Natural Polymers: Found in nature; e.g., cellulose, proteins.
Synthetic Polymers: Man-made; e.g., polythene, nylon.
Semi-synthetic Polymers: Chemically modified natural polymers; e.g., cellulose acetate.
3. Explain the free radical mechanism of addition polymerization with ethene as an example.
Initiation: Formation of free radicals using an initiator like benzoyl peroxide.
Propagation: Free radicals react with ethene monomers, forming a chain.
Termination: Two free radical chains combine, ending the chain reaction.
4. Describe the preparation, properties, and uses of the following polymers:
Nylon 6,6:
Preparation: Condensation polymerization of hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid.
Properties: High tensile strength, elasticity.
Uses: Textiles, automotive parts.
Bakelite:
Preparation: Condensation of phenol with formaldehyde.
Properties: Hard, heat-resistant.
Uses: Electrical insulators, kitchenware.
5. What is vulcanization of rubber? Explain its significance.
Vulcanization: Heating raw rubber with sulfur to form cross-links between polymer chains.
Significance: Improves elasticity, strength, and resistance to temperature changes.
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Chapter 16: Green Chemistry and Nanochemistry
1. Define the following terms:
Green Chemistry: Designing chemical processes to reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances.
Atom Economy: A measure of the efficiency of a reaction, calculated as the molecular weight of desired products divided by the molecular weight of all reactants, multiplied by 100.
Nanochemistry: The study and synthesis of materials at the nanoscale, where unique properties emerge.
2. Explain any three principles of green chemistry with examples.
Prevention: Avoiding waste production; e.g., designing processes with no by-products.
Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries: Using non-toxic solvents; e.g., water or supercritical CO₂ instead of benzene.
Design for Degradation: Creating products that break down into harmless substances; e.g., biodegradable plastics.
3. Discuss the role of nanotechnology in water purification.
Silver Nanoparticles: Act as antibacterial agents, removing pathogens from water.
Nanofiltration Membranes: Remove contaminants at the molecular level, including heavy metals and organic pollutants.
4. Describe the sol-gel method for synthesizing nanomaterials.
Process:
Hydrolysis: Metal alkoxides react with water to form a sol.
Polycondensation: Sol transforms into a gel-like network.
Drying and Calcination: Removal of solvents and heating to obtain nanomaterials.
Applications: Used to produce nanoparticles, coatings, and porous materials.
5. What are the environmental benefits of applying green chemistry principles in industrial processes?
Reduction in Hazardous Waste: Minimizes environmental pollution.
Energy Efficiency: Processes designed to operate at ambient temperatures and pressures save energy.
